How Does Cognitive Relates and Interact With Music and Art
ane.
INTRODUCTION
Since the explosion of Big Data from the Net Age of the 1990s, information is everywhere. Today, the inundation of unstructured data comes in function from all the various social media platforms available that include blogs, Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, Twitter, YouTube, and the like. As IBM reported in their 2011 Global Chief Marketing Officer (CMO) Study, "…every day we create ii.5 quintillion bytes of data – so much that ninety per centum of the world's data today has been created in the last 2 years lone."1 This reveals that our penchant for and necessity of communicating with others via computers is the norm and will merely become more than integrated in our lives every bit we collaborate with increasingly smarter social platforms and technologies. The rise of intelligent technologies is gaining traction at unprecedented speeds: from Thousand.P.S. directions and Siri'south recommendations, to the ubiquity of drones in various sectors, robot jockeys for camel racing in the Arab earth, and the impending trials of driverless vehicles on public roads in the UK.2-four In response to these advancements, futurists and computer science experts have more recently fabricated explicit to the general public both the benefits and dangers of creating intelligent systems that will surpass our own human abilities (i.e. the emergence of bogus superintelligence (ASI)).5-eight And while companies such every bit Apple make technologies evermore individualized and human, it is important to take a step dorsum and consider the key element that makes us an intelligent species and the one I volition focus on in this newspaper: creativity. Whether devising new tools to heighten survival, understanding the laws of nature through mathematics, or inventing new narratives through improvisational theatre, artistic behavior, our capacity to create alternatives to ever-changing situations, has and continues to be an essential part of our human evolutionary, intellectual, and creative history.9-17 We are a species who is self-aware, cocky-improving, and goal-seeking, and to replenish a human-similar artificial system is to fundamentally sympathize how we think and act. More precisely, processing speed and retentiveness capacity is non enough until that figurer can likewise match our natural language capabilities, interpret the visual world we daily navigate, feel mutual sense, and essentially reach our level of artistic capacity.5,xviii,xix What then can this optimal mode of intellectual functioning tell us about how we think?
As with any complex human cognitive phenomenon, understanding and modeling the artistic process remains a line of inquiry ripe for advocacy and ingenuity. Given the fundamental nature of creativity, the range and bear upon of creative behaviors are impossible to predict or make up one's mind. Consequently, exploration on the topic has primarily focused on understanding the how of cosmos with the ultimate goal of discovering our own capacities of inventiveness to further improve our power to innovate. There are particular questions that underlie both theoretical and empirical work on the subject, and they include but are not limited to: How exercise we define creativity and what are the various types of artistic behaviors? How do nosotros reach inventiveness among activities that are persistent and long-term vs. spontaneous and curt-term? In what ways does artistic inventiveness differ from non-creative creativity? How does emotion factor into the artistic process? How does creativity arise within a collaborative group setting? How practice we all-time study creativity and what can we learn from new methods of questioning and investigation? What follows is a summary discussion of various empirical approaches, results, and shortcomings to set the stage for the electric current novel interdisciplinary report.
1.1
Models of creativity: what behavioral and brain-imaging studies reveal
The breath of literature on creative thinking and its subtopics—achievement, expert knowledge, imagination, insight, intelligence, trouble solving, and exceptional accomplishments and/or artistic production post brain trauma as chronicled through case studies—is extensive and rich. There is no shortage of reflection or experimentation, with perspectives ranging from art history, musicology, and philosophy to cognitive science, reckoner science, and (neuro)psychology. 12, xiv-17, 20-35 The systematic cognitive psychological study of creativity, even so, did non receive significant attention until American psychologist J. P. Guilford fabricated it the focus of his now classic presidential accost to the American Psychological Association in 1950.21 This phone call for investigation came correct every bit the cognitive (and computer) revolution began to respond to the dominant behavioristic approach of scientific psychology and its theories about stimulus-response associations with arguments for the being of mental representations to fully narrate the complexity of human behavior.18 Under this artistic knowledge approach, which adult more extensively in the 1990s and the one adopted here, creativity is an accessible and testable behavior amenable to the methods of the empirical cognitive sciences and is defined as a mental miracle that engages multiple cognitive processes such as attention, emotion, retentivity, reasoning, and cogitating decision-making judgments to generate unconventional, novel and useful solutions to bug.36-38 The simultaneous advent and mass availability of brain-imaging techniques in the 1990s precipitated a broad range of experiments, and the effort continues to establish a link between creative (artistic) behavior and particular brain networks.39-55
1.ane.1
Divergent production
If creativity is characterized by the novelty of a solution to a problem, then one way to study the emergence of creative solutions is to examination problem-solving tasks that identify an array of possible solutions. This assumption originates from the claim that creativity is fundamentally measurable in terms of divergent production, or the quantification of varied outcomes, independent of their usefulness, in response to specific stimuli.21,22 In a study that employed a basic behavioral stimulus-response paradigm, Finke and colleagues asked participants to mentally visualize superimposing a fix of messages, numbers, and/or geometric forms in novel ways and to imagine an entirely new epitome using a set of familiar items. Verbal reports from participants revealed the emergence of new forms otherwise non known, and the invention of familiar items with new parts that may or may not have had functional value but nonetheless were alterable during a subsequent exploratory process that imposed particular functional or categorical criteria on the emergent forms.56,57 Despite the simplicity of the experimental setup, the written report consistently revealed humans' adeptness at non only recreating familiar forms with new sets of items, but inventing entirely new forms without any obvious functional value. This observation of emergence in structure, behavior, and function is confirmatory given the paramount importance of such an intelligent combinatorial capacity necessary for self-improvement and overall evolutionary progress. As an obvious example, look to tongue'southward space combinatorial potential as an indicator of the brain's generative capacity.
In more complex experiments where new shapes are generated from predetermined sets of object parts, results have revealed that the creative thinking process is ultimately a combination of two types of cognitive qualities with i type more than involved than the other depending on the creator's goals (and mayhap fifty-fifty personality traits): spontaneous/unstructured (or chaotic thinking) and intentional/structured (or ordered thinking). In the former type, novel forms rapidly arise unplanned without any explicit witting deliberation and usually incorporate unexpected associations; the lack of a defined end goal leads to remarkably ingenious innovations. In the latter blazon, novel forms are generated in a controlled, systematic way and are influenced by prior noesis, preexisting categories, and even familiar ideas resulting in outcomes not as novel as those resulting from spontaneous/unstructured thinking.56 Further understanding the internal exploratory idea development process has led to investigating the interaction between visuo-spatial information in long-term memory vs. short-term working retentivity and its effects on innovative pattern making within real-world applicative contexts such as architectural conceptual planning. In a recent study by Bilda and Gero where professional architects designed the conceptual business firm program for two unlike types of clients, the blindfolded grouping developed pattern ideas with equal and slightly greater efficiency than the grouping tasked with traditionally sketching their ideas out with pad and pencil. These findings support the hypothesis that idea generation may exist enhanced by imagery solitary and does not require explicit visual feedback to exist efficient and significantly novel.58 This hypothesis could in part be explained by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) evidence that visual imagery draws upon similar neural machinery as visual perception59 and substantiate the bear upon of not-direct visually biased sensory input for spontaneous/unstructured creative thinking outcomes.
1.1.2
Farther insight into prefrontal cortex function
Expanding upon these behavioral observations, psychologist Arne Dietrich has proposed that the ii basic types of creative processing modes (deliberate and/or spontaneous) mentioned in a higher place tin can each projection computations to cognitive and/or emotional structures and atomic number 82 to the post-obit 4 types: deliberate-cognitive (i.due east. insight as a result of sustained, focused work), spontaneous-cognitive (i.e. a Eureka! moment), deliberate-emotional (i.e. an Aha! moment), and/or spontaneous-emotional (i.e. an epiphany). All of these modes interact in any given way during creative thinking and potentially share the aforementioned final neural pathway to make it at an outcome.38 At the core of insight recognition, evaluation, and expressive realization is the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and its functionally divided aspects: the ventromedial (VMPFC) expanse which is connected to the limbic organisation and implicated in emotional and logical evaluation of behavior,60 and the dorsolateral (DLPFC) area which (a) receives input from the posterior occipital, parietal, and temporal sensory and clan cortices, (b) sends output to motor areas for activity, and (c) is implicated in key cognitive functions such equally working retentiveness,61 temporal integration,62 and sustained and focused attention.63 As a outcome of this complex network, decision-making relies most importantly on a working retention information buffer in the PFC to hold, rearrange, and restructure relevant knowledge for solving a detail problem.64 Thus, as a novel thought occurs, its conscious representation in working memory causes it to go a recognizable insight that undergoes further recombination and exploration of self-reflection, evaluation, and reporting until final implementation.38,64 Of these hypothesized processing modes, ane of the improve-documented examples has been the investigation of the Aha! moment in which blood flow data from fMRI and brainwave electroencephalogram (EEG) information were used to study subjects as they created common 2-word compound phrases from single words. This written report revealed that the brain prepares for the oncoming breakthrough: the conscious suddenness of insight is preceded by a burst of encephalon action whereby the anterior superior temporal gyrus (aSTG), a structure involved in auditory and language processing, in the right hemisphere becomes unusually agile one-tertiary of a second earlier the insight every bit integration of information occurs.39 This process has been further dissected with EEG data and observations include (i) a neural correlate of mental impasse, or blank state whereby the trouble-solver struggles to discover a solution despite extreme focused attention, in parietal-occipital brain areas, (ii) a correlation between the right PFC and conscious restructuring of the problem, and (iii) higher activeness in posterior regions within the parieto-occipital area during pregnant trouble understanding and concluding, sudden retrieval of a solution.40 Additional studies have shown that this process is besides correlated with significant activity in the emotion learning areas of the amygdala,41 highlighting the positive emotions experienced during identification of a working solution.
While these experiments have focused on relatively common exact complexities typical in a diversity of linguistic contexts, brain studies, like behavioral experiments, take turned towards art professionals and their capacities in an try to capture the highly skilled brain during controlled simplified moments of artistic creation. This focus lies on the assumption that artists are (a) experts in creative creativity and can readily conform to performing in-the-moment generative tasks in an experimental context (unlike novices, who may struggle to innovate considering their control of the basic skills, lexicon, and syntactic knowledge necessary for fluency in the artistic domain remains incomplete), and (b) their cerebral processing stages differ significantly enough from not-artists that differences tin can be observed in their functional neuroanatomy. Studies of visual artists and non-artists as they sketch novel drawings reveal that there are indeed neural differences such as greater neural action in PFC regions in the artists' brains than in the non-artists.42-44 Interestingly, greater cortical thickness in the left lateral orbitofrontal cortex has been significantly linked with college overall creative achievement.34 These data, of course, do non explain whether the higher creativity is a product of an increase in grey matter or general greater mass of greyness thing in detail brain regions. Other artistic mediums such as story generation,45 creative brainstorming and writing,46 improvisational and imagined dance,47 and choreographed motility imagery,48 to name a few, accept as well received attention and have all reported activation in orbitofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices. Additionally, studies with musicians improvising musical sequences have unsurprisingly observed activation in relevant cortical areas associated with rapid output of auditory-motor sequences, advice, and top-down processing.49-55 An interesting finding in a jazz written report, yet, observed both deactivation in the DLPFC and activation in the medial PFC in the task where most improvisational freedom was allowed and musically observed; a mental state the investigators suggest is potential neural bear witness of artistic menses, or a balance between attenuation of awareness and intense acuity of self-expression.51 The term catamenia was originally coined by positive psychologist Mihály Csíkszentmihályi in the 1970s to describe an optimal experience that occurs during a highly motivated, intense, enjoyable, and creative (but not necessarily artistic) human action by the individual in question24,25 and, as more recently documented, possible in all members inside a collaborative-creating context.15,66 While the dissociative neural state in the above study remains to be replicated in other musical, artistic, and non-artistic creative acts, information technology stands every bit a provocative finding for 2 reasons: (a) contradistinct states of consciousness–(day)dreaming, drug-induced states, endurance running, hypnosis, and meditation–whereby diverse like distortions occur with respect to time perception, adherence to social constraints, and focused attention tend to exhibit a transient decrease in PFC activity67 and suggest a neurological similarity to creative thinking states, and (b) because the very premise of the Surrealist art movement of the 1920s was founded on the idea that artistic invention "…proposes to limited, be it verbally, or written, or by whichever method, the actual operation of thought in the absence of consummate control as determined by reason, and exempt from all aesthetic or moral business organisation"68 and such a neural outcome may be modern technology's answer to a century-old suggestion.
1.1.three
Dynamic searches and exchanges
Overall, these results provide objective evidence to back up the claim that artists (and highly creative individuals) engage in more than top-down processing than non-artists. A greater and more advanced noesis and representation infinite helps with the unconventional pattern searching and problem restructuring necessary for an optimal solution. Returning to the issue of how insight evolves outside of brain states, design computationalist John Due south. Gero proposed in the mid-nineties a gear up of hierarchical steps to the process. As new variables and consequent new conceptual schemas are integrated and the current trouble infinite is transformed, a novel design emerges.29 This presumably entails that the problem infinite continually alters its shape with every novel idea until the most appropriate design for the intended goal is accomplished. Moreover, it appears that an essential component for efficient and original implementation is an internal appraisal by the problem-solver, in comparison to an overt one, every bit empirically observed in the study with blindfolded architects.58 While Gero'southward model can explain how novelty evolves from preexisting forms, information technology does non explicitly consider integration of the important, and fundamentally inevitable, role ever-changing contexts (cultural, social, and personal) play in the evaluative and consequent implementation processes.69,70 Explicitly bringing to the forefront both the creator'due south mind and physical state within their environment and the environment's acceptance of and response to the creator, Glaveanu and colleagues offer an fifty-fifty larger contextual perspective of the creative procedure within diverse artistic mediums and affirm that internal cognitive, emotional, and motivational elements of the creator are inseparable from and in constant dynamic feedback with external expectations, interpretations, and reactions from society.69 As philosopher and psychologist John Dewey remarked in the 1930s, "the external object, the production of fine art, is the connecting link between artist and audition. Even when the artist works in confinement all three terms are present. The piece of work is at that place in progress, and the artist has to become vicariously the receiving audience."71 From this perspective, creativity is hardly a singular experience and brings to the forefront the inevitable inclusion of societal expectations regarding, for example, aesthetic qualities to the artistic development process. Under this umbrella of sociocultural psychology, information technology is imperative to also consider that collaborative, or grouping, inventiveness may as well reveal much about the process, the individuals involved, and the resulting outcome. Given the existent-fourth dimension exchange of ideas on stage amongst jazz musicians or improvisational theatre actors, for instance, Sawyer specifically proposes that group creativity, much like every day conversation, becomes a product of interactional synchrony as all relevant parties listen and react to one another and maintain group coherence.66 In essence, collaboration is necessary for innovation to flourish in a grouping setting.
one.two
The interdisciplinary movement ahead
The study of (creative) creativity is undeniably interdisciplinary. Nosotros go far at the crossroads of multiple disciplines and at a moment in history, and in the study of this primal human intellectual capacity, where bold methods of investigation are called for if we are to fully and successfully model the complex process of innovation. In essence, we have perhaps circled back to what Renaissance humanists from the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries sought for: eloquence, or a mastery of many disciplines so that lives of wisdom and consequence could be led.72 I advise, therefore, to take stock of what we accept washed and reconsider what we could practise in the near time to come. The studies discussed have used traditional scientific reductionist methods and controlled testing environments for empirical exploration. In other words, pose question 10, pick contrasting variables y and z and a control, bring artists into the lab to perform conditions a and b, clarify the observed c behavior to determine if the expected answer can back up previous claims regarding question ten, and repeat in search of reproducibility and validity. The neuroscience perspective to the artistic cognition arroyo similarly needs to be adopted with care.73 As with other complex psychological categories such as feelings, memories, and the cocky, thinking is a drove of mental states originating from the encephalon. Known as the listen-brain correspondence problem, psychological categories are not necessarily instantiated in a one-to-i correspondence with brain states and the field of cerebral (neuro)psychology may need to reassess its framework of investigation.74 Issues bated, the results as they stand up take been elucidating. Every bit a side note, the tendency towards experimenting with highly proficient and successful artists when studying creativity does not dominion out individuals who are highly skilful and successful in other professions such as business, education, technology, journalism, law, medicine, etc., that demand enormous amounts of creativity both during immediate and more long-term situations; this has been a flaw from the overall investigators' side of the field, a loss of interdisciplinarity inside and between disciplines, and, more broadly, the inevitable immaturity of a field still in its infancy.
An alternative method of investigation that has begun to shine in the spotlight, despite its initiation in the 1950s,75,76 is known every bit arts-based behavioral enquiry, or the systematic use of the creative procedure in its natural environs as the primary fashion to explore, experiment with, claiming, and empathize perception, emotion, memory, consciousness, and other cerebral functions.77 It is of course plausible to consider this method entirely applicable to other disciplines. In this domain of enquiry, a question x is posed or a desired effect is established with an openness to in-the-moment change of conceptual direction, variables y and z are called for exploration, the creative person tests a range of possibilities to see what volition emerge or until the desired outcome is accomplished, and the process is repeated (with alterations), e'er in search of variations and new effects. A notable instance is witnessed in films where Pablo Picasso's creative painting process in his studio was twice the discipline of ascertainment: for Belgian filmmaker Paul Haesaerts' Visit to Picasso ("Visite à Picasso") in 1950 and French filmmaker Henri-Georges Clouzot'due south The Mystery of Picasso ("Le mystère Picasso") in 1956 in which most of the paintings Picasso created on photographic camera were later on destroyed later on filming, an action perfectly in-line with the objective of the film (i.e. the creative process, not the resulting product). In both documentaries nosotros witness first-hand concept origin, brushstroke technique, idea transformation during implementation, concept reinspiration, and artful evaluation and re-evaluation all unfold in real-time; the cadre elements of a problem space solution-searching model. I make no claims of methodological superiority, only an open-mindedness to accept Art and Scientific discipline'south individual and collective value as toolboxes of truth searching and a resurgence of arts-based inquiry into the creative process to capture spontaneity in action. Which brings me to the crux of this newspaper: inspired by creative methods, simply guided by empirical questions, I have created two unique projects within moving picture and theatre at the intersection of Fine art and Science with the goal of witnessing and revealing how audiovisual sensory information, emotion, language, and the generation of new fabric all interact in a given alive performance moment to produce a coherent artistic object.
2.
METHODOLOGY
While the descriptive dynamic action models proposed by Glaveanu and colleagues are widely encompassing of the creative process within art, pattern, scientific discipline scriptwriting, and music limerick,69 they focus on a generative artistic procedure of long duration that develops over time, what Sawyer refers to as product inventiveness or long and short-term artistic activities that upshot in single objective, tangible products after many sketches, initial starts, and revisions.78 An alternative to such creative activities is spontaneous in-the-moment invention equally typically witnessed, for case, in jazz concerts and improvisational trip the light fantastic toe and theatre performances whereby there are no prearranged scores, choreography, or dialogue to perform from and the composition unravels on stage. Jazz and jazz musicians (and dancers, and theatre and improvisational actors), therefore, are an platonic entity to written report for spontaneous inventiveness because composition and performance are inseparable acts that are e'er novel moments and experiences because the jazz form per se is congenital ".. .on the assumption that each individual musician simultaneously and consciously adapts to the whole, supporting the other players, and influencing the overall outcome. In other words…to allow each player to creatively contribute to the whole by levering the creative contributions of the others"79 in live operation contexts. In cerebral terms, similarly to tongue, these musicians can generate a potentially infinite number of contextually meaningful musical phrases past combining a finite gear up of notes and rhythms. Moreover, with the inclusion of specific emotional target stimuli as the thematic compositional goal of the musician(s), an ideal platform for real-time emotion perception and translation tin be created. Every bit such, film and theatre offer natural environments for music to accept on a number of functions: raise emotional and/or thematic narrative structure, communicate significant beyond the scene such every bit characters' internal emotional states, set up a scene's mood, provide continuity betwixt scenes and/or events, and offer an overall aesthetic event to the film-viewing80 and theatrical feel. To my knowledge, no study of live musical improvisation within picture palace and theatre contexts exploring in-the-moment expressive translation of specific scenic variables such as actors' emotional states and dialogue to musical language has been done, either scientifically or artistically. The two novel, interdisciplinary projects discussed below were prepared in order to be screened, performed, and recorded on stage with live improvised music by professional jazz musicians to allow for the merge of improvisational music within 2 different art forms and to maintain strong ecological validity: a film titled Moments and a theatrical play in Castilian with English language surtitles titled Última Partida ("The Final Draw")81 that both explore the 6 universal human emotions (anger, disgust, fright, happiness, sadness, and surprise).82
ii.1
Moments
The inspiration for creating a live functioning of improvised music scoring to a new contemporary moving picture came nearly after watching one of the most famous examples of improvised movie scoring in moving-picture show history, Louis Malle's 1958 debut feature Elevator to the Gallows ("Ascenseur pour 50'échafaud") with trumpeter Miles Davis at the captain.83 The interaction betwixt image and sound is breathtaking and multilayered in many scenes throughout the flick, but ane particular now iconic three-minute long scene stands out: the heroine, played by French actress Jeanne Moreau, walks with poise through the nighttime rainy streets of Paris in search of her lover while Davis' trumpet sings with modal moodiness all her sadness, loneliness, and anger in 1 single track. In my contemporary reenactment, I wrote, filmed, and directed a 39-infinitesimal long picture titled Moments with minimal spoken dialogue where the six universal emotions are dissected as a woman and human's relationship is tested through a serial of events. The purpose of including minimal dialogue, a total of fourteen lines spoken past the adult female and 7 past the man, was to provide an almost purely visual nevertheless realistic platform for the musicians to translate. The film is divided into v capacity with the post-obit headings: Ch. one: Sadness, Ch. 2: Surprise and Disgust, Ch. iii: Fright, Ch. 4: Happiness, Ch. v: Anger. Jazz musicians improvised the picture's soundtrack live during a public screening in Baltimore, MD.84 Prior to the public screening I informally screened it to several unbiased viewers to check for the stability of the emotional content within each scene. All viewers agreed that the emotions expressed by the characters were realistic and identifiable.
The trio who improvised the music included pianoforte, tenor saxophone, and bass and all three musicians were familiar with each other but had non however played together or composed music for film prior to this performance; they had a combined boilerplate of eleven years of professional working experience. The musicians and I met several weeks prior to the performance to hash out their function as soundtrack improvisers who would exist tasked with creating a soundtrack that "fits" the narrative of the pic and playing continuously from the film's get-go to the closing credits, and watch the film and review the narrative construction of the storyline. Musical ideas and a soundtrack, withal, were not adult, charted out, or scored and the musicians left without a copy of the film. I specifically did non make explicit how music is used in and for film contexts to avert constraining musical ideas. The purpose of this arrangement was to familiarize the musicians with the task and layout of the screening and functioning venue, and to avert any musical biases or composed fabric from existence planned and arising during the performance in club to create an entirely novel live audiovisual experience. During the picture show's screening the minimal dialogue was muted and included as subtitles and the musicians stood on stage, as in any alive concert figuration, each with a minor laptop or iPad from which to view the film in real-fourth dimension. The performance was recorded alive. Afterward, I interviewed a jazz musician with approximately vii years of professional person working experience about the technical musical aspects of the improvised compositions. My experimental questions were: what furnishings do clearly demarcated realistic visual emotional stimuli have on improvised musical content and how will multiple musicians deal with this musical chore live on phase?
2.2
Última Partida / The Final Draw
While the theatrical empirical follow-up to Moments, Última Partida ("The Final Draw") was thematically inspired by Italian filmmaker Michelangelo Antonioni's 1961 narrative on social deterioration and romantic alienation in La Notte ("The Night"). In Última Partida, an original one-human action dramatic play I wrote, directed, and produced with La Petite Noiseuse Productions, three fictitious characters convene at a cabaret during a unmarried night: a woman, a man, and a pianist. The woman and man'south by, present, and time to come relationship unfolds in six scenes as they discuss dearest, disaffection, confinement, and death: i. Oferta para dialogar ("Offer to talk"), ii. Esperanza de volver ("Hoping to go back together"), iii. Interludio festivo ("Comic interlude"), 4. Imposibilidad de volver ("The impossibility of getting back together"), v. Dolor de la memoria ("The pain of memory"), and vi. El último adiós ("The final goodbye").81 The audition is introduced to the jazz pianist through his live improvisations on stage; the character does not accept a speaking role. I created this item role for the pianist to non just push button the boundaries of live music within contemporary theatre, merely to specifically transform the emotional narrative of both the dialogue and the scene into the linguistic communication of music, either as explicitly instructed in the script during particular scenes and moments of silence betwixt the characters' dialogue or equally the musical background as determined by the pianist. Furthermore, the linguistic communication and dialogue play with give-and-take meanings and rhymes to offer a rich setting for the pianist to improvise (and in stark contrast with Moments). This creative improvisational type of presentation necessitates unique music every performance.
The pianist, who as well improvised for Moments, had an boilerplate of 18 years working professionally and while had done some musical theatre containing scored orchestral work earlier, had non improvised live for a theatrical production of this type. I met with the pianist several weeks prior to rehearsals with the actors to talk over his function, the overall storyline, and the nuevo tango ("new tango") style of music I wanted to be implemented equally part of the melodic foundation from which to improvise. The pianist and then attended the final two weeks of rehearsals to familiarize himself with the dialogue, stage and musical entrance cues explicitly noted in the text, timing between scenes, and particular elements I designated to be incorporated throughout (i.eastward. the utilize of ostinato or the repetition of a particular phrase or motif). A soundtrack, even so, was not charted out or scored. The play was presented to the public eight times in the metropolitan Baltimore, Md and Washington, D.C. areas. All performances were photographed and audio and video recorded live. After the performance I interviewed a jazz musician with approximately 7 years of professional person working experience about the technical musical aspects of the improvised limerick. The presented musical information come up from one of the performances. My experimental question was: what effects do clearly established realistic linguistic and visual emotional stimuli accept on improvised musical content?
3.
Information AND RESULTS
Using clearly marked emotional segments as regions of interest, I outset performed mise-en-scène and text analyses of the film and theatrical works so examined their respective improvised musical scores. A mise-en-scène analysis is a method used in film and theatre to identify the key components of a shot or scene (due east.g. setting, lighting, costume, staging) in social club to explain the meaning of those components and how they connect to the overall narrative themes, and hence bear upon the audience's interpretation of the work. The purpose of this method is to ultimately hypothesize the narrative intentions of the filmmaker or theatre director. For the detail purpose here, I concentrated on the deportment of the actors occurring in each new scene in all five chapters of Moments to determine whether there was a correlation between actors' behavior and specific musical variables utilized within the musical content generated. For the theatrical production, I took a slightly dissimilar approach of analysis. Although Última Partida is thematically divided into vi scenes, each scene explores an assortment of emotions in a far more complex manner than Moments. I first analyzed the musical content generated so reference the original text to assess what the pianist had focused on during his realtime interpretation. This class of activity for the film and theatre analyses relies on the fact that music is an effective means for expression and communication, which has persisted for thousands of years and across all known man cultures,85 and utilizes particular structural elements to reliably practice and then, be it from the compositional standpoint and/or interpretive performance side of expression.86-88 Unlike the contempo handful of neuroscience studies exploring the brain while pianists improvise simple, one-handed novel melodies on three-octave, non-weighted nonferromagnetic keyboards lying supine within an MRI machine and a mirror to view the keyboard,49-54 the musicians here were not given whatsoever musical (central, style, pitch range, rhythm, tempo) or physical (mode of delivery) constraints. Moreover, I reject the continuous categorization of emotions as "positive" or "negative"88 to avoid unnecessary labels and biases.
3.one
Moments files
3.2
Última Partida / The Final Depict (theatre)
Audio 2.
Audio samples_Ultima Partida. Representative photographs from several scenes from the staging of Última Partida and their respective audio excerpts. http://dx.doi.Org/10.1117/12.2083880.2
Combining the data from both projects, several observations can be made. Get-go ascertainment: visual emotional content has a bijective result on improvised music. For instance, a happy scene elicits the cosmos of happy music, a fearful scene fearful music, a seductive scene seductive music, a tense-filled scene tense music, and so on. 2d observation: musical variables such as manner (major or minor), tempo (fast or slow in beats per infinitesimal (BPM)), rhythm, pitch range (high or low), and dynamics (loud or soft) are all used in a variety of combinations to create enhanced emotional contexts to the visual and spoken narrative via mimicry of the physiological characteristics of each emotion. In Moments, for example, nosotros see the following as described in Tabular array 1. In Ch. ane: Sadness where the female character receives bad news and begins crying the tempo falls to larghetto, dynamics are at mezzo-pianoforte, and the bass, in particular, mimics the pulse of the woman'due south slow, heavy animate. In Ch. iv: Happiness where the scene follows the ii characters during their pleasant and relaxed fourth dimension together outside, the music starts off in a major key, at a lento tempo, with a bluesy experience, and at about an octave higher up heart C. As the characters become more than playful, the music increases in tempo to an allegro moderato. In Ch. 5: Acrimony, the scene shows the same 2 characters in a far more estranged way. Their backs are to the camera, a large empty space sits between them, and their subsequent actions are unpredictable. Hither, the music is atonal, tempo is erratic, dissonances arise, and dynamics are uneven. In Última Partida, we meet similar effects equally described in Table 2. In scene 1 almost the beginning of the play when the cabaret setting is introduced and the 2 characters begin a dorsum and along aye-and-no game of proposals by the homo and rejections by the woman, the music shifts between minor and major tonalities and the tempo liberally speeds upward and slows down always so slightly (rubato) to mimic their button and pull. So equally the couple begins to close in on and seduce each other through their words, a bluesy melody slips in, the tonality is more major, and the tempo stays at a steady andante. In scene four when the woman delivers an intimate, passionate monologue virtually self, the pianoforte enters softly and tenderly with unmarried notes. And then equally the couple begins to clash, dissonant semitone clusters persist to jarring effect. Third ascertainment: salient non-emotional scenographic elements within the narrative are also simultaneously musically translated. For example, in Ch. 2: Surprise and Cloy in Moments, the two characters are shown ascending a long narrow seemingly infinite staircase to the rooftop. An overall upshot of continuous circular movement is created as the piano ascends up the keyboard with heavy chords and repeating bass notes (pedal tones), the bass descends, and the saxophone repeats his same dissonant melody with slight variations through diverse keys. In Ch. 3: Fright where a woman's hand unrelentingly slides up the banister, the pianist mimics with a continuous legato impact. Within Ch. 4: Happiness, water falling in a fountain is present within the visual frame and the improvised music mimics its glistening audio effects with rolling ascending chords. In Última Partida, nosotros also witness a similar effect. Near significantly, in scene 2 where the couple begins to trip the light fantastic toe flirtatiously, the music enters with a tango. As scene two moves forward and they hash out why their human relationship failed, the human being mentions a "statue of glass" and its fall. The music enters with parallel chords (a sequence of chords containing intervals that do not change every bit the chord moves up or downwards), and so moves to an even higher register on the keyboard to shattering event, and and then continues with the dissonant parallel chords as the couple's views brainstorm to clash. In scene 3 when the couple throws flirtatious poetic stanzas back and forth, the pianist reflects the repetitiveness of their actions with the continuous repetition of a brusque melodic phrase (ostinato) in their right hand and the alternating call and response with a flowing left hand below and higher up the right mitt. Fourth ascertainment: in the case of Moments where a trio improvised the score, the musicians simultaneously engaged in interactive communication between each other that included diverse mutual musical exchanges exemplified inside jazz such as melodic and rhythmic imitation and motivic developmentxv,79 as significantly observed in all the chapters, and with each instrument taking the melodic or rhythmic lead at various points.
Table 1.
Chapters in Moments with their respective synopsis and primary distinguishing musical observations.
| Ch. 1 Sadness00:14 Chapter begins12:38 Scene endsSynopsis: Adult female works at her desk-bound and shifts through photographs of nameless women. Phone telephone call comes through and she breaks downwardly crying upon hearing bad news. | Musical Observations•Key oscillates: Asus-A minor-Asus-Eflat Major-Grand small-scale-D Dorian•Tempo shifts: 58-130-56/58-67 BPM•06:08-11:30: tempo at slowest; sax takes center phase and creates new motif, pianoforte imitates melodically and rhythmically, they alternate; bass follows pulse of woman's animate; dynamics at steady mezzo-piano with slight crescendo and decrescendo | Ch. 2 Surprise12:45 Chapter begins22:54 Scene endsSynopsis: Unnamed man makes a phone telephone call requesting "a girl." Woman answers phone, surprised to hear the human's vocalism. Adult female gain to grant his request. | Musical Observations•D Phrygian (introduces B flat)•80 BPM•Pianoforte dominates with dissonant A and B flat together in quarter notes•Piano, sax, and bass all play random alternating inserts with a call and response effect |
| Ch. ii Disgust12:45 Chapter begins22:54 Scene endsSynopsis: Woman transforms herself in front of a mirror, repeatedly making her confront & cleaning information technology until satisfied. Human is then seen walking and entering a gated area and pb by a faceless woman upwards a staircase to the roof. | Musical Observations•Tempo steady at eighty, then 116 BPM•16:45: pianoforte continues with anomalous A and B apartment notes then changes rhythm, increases tempo, bass follows, pianoforte and sax alternate, intensity increases; round ascending 4ths sound into high register•C minor blues with walking bass at 122 BPM•Ascending pedal tones, bass descends, sax is dissonant, all crescendo to fortissimo so decrescendo to mezzo-piano | Ch. 3 Fear23:00 Affiliate begins24:24 Scene endsSynopsis: A woman's legs and anxiety are seen walking on a sidewalk so into a night building and up a solitary staircase, her hand sliding upwards the banister. Woman's terrified face is suddenly seen and assumed beingness killed. | Musical Observations•threescore BPM•Pianoforte in higher annals of keyboard with dissonant broken chord blueprint in rhythm with woman'south steps, legato touch•Bass has increased repetitive pulse•Sax moves from lower to college annals•Tension builds w/ piano's broken chord repetition•Sudden crescendo past all |
| Ch. 4 Happiness24:39 Chapter begins5:22 Scene endsSynopsis: Adult female and man are outside at a plaza with a fountain. They flirt, express joy, and joke around. They eventually blur out behind the fountain's waterfall. | Musical Observations•G Major; starts at 48 BPM (with rubato)•Calm piano begins, adds bluesy notes in higher annals of keyboard•26:50: sax and bass come in with bass playing rhythm, tempo rises to 114 BPM as couple becomes more playful•33:55: piano starts rolling ascending chords, coda of G Major tune, sax follows | Ch. 5 Anger35:28 Chapter begins37:twoscore Scene endsSynopsis: Woman and human are on balcony. Man confronts woman near her task, she confronts him; nada is resolved. Man's anger flares upward and downward. Fade to black, credits roll. | Musical Observations•Loses key center•Out of tempo•Racket, varied dynamics; hesitant, mysterious sounding piano-bass-sax trading•Pianist strums pianoforte strings multiple times•Tiresome decrescendo {forte to pianissimo) |
Tabular array two.
Meaning musical observations with their respective scene, synopsis, and text (translated from the original Spanish).
| •Scene one & Synopsis: Man offers to recuperate relationship with adult female; woman does not. Human repeatedly tries in vain.•Text: Woman: …Did y'all find? That constant rhythm that comes and goes with every hour took some time to disappear from consciousness. And slowly, south-l-o-w-fifty-y, I let it go. Man: Adult female, y'all know y'all can count on me. And not just a couple of times…•Musical Observations: Cabaret theme introduced. Variations upon theme created with the same sequence of chords, reoccurring ii-5-I motion. Rubato tempo creates colored tones within sweeping arpeggios. Shifts betwixt pocket-size and major tonalities. Flourishes incorporated (e.thou. trills.). Overall mezzo-forte. |
| •Scene 1 & Synopsis: The couple seduces i another with lustful language.•Text: Man: … Curves left … and right …so sweetly soft … that I loose myself. I can't aid but roll my natural language with so many words! Woman: Haha… I can't help but laugh at your oh and then masculine perspective!•Musical Observations: Dejection tune introduced. Andante tempo. Major tonality. |
| •Scene 1 & Synopsis: Woman reminds man of her skepticism.•Text: Woman: …Do yous not hear yourself? Oh so fix to talk. Look at yourself initiating new methods, imagining moves, asking questions, giving praises. But you oasis't taken a good hard expect at the by, or far beyond in the future.•Musical Observations: Tango-theme inserted, followed by a cycle of minor ascendant chords and a sweet cascade in right hand. |
| •Scene 2 & Synopsis: The couple begins a flirtatious trip the light fantastic.•Text: Man: …Let's talk. And I'grand not giving up on united states of america. Permit's brand a deal. Woman: All correct. …•Musical Observations: A sensual, romantic tango enters with a chromatic half step encircling of a C leading into F minor. |
| •Scene 2 & Synopsis: The couple returns to the happiness of the past and consider what could be in the present.•Text: Man: …like wild deer nosotros search for something under these sweet golden trees at our reach. Woman: And with uninhibited laughs we desire everything under these mature red copse at our reach.•Musical Observations: A return to all of the above just without the tango tune. College register on the keyboard, tender impact, rubato tempo. Somewhen descends into lower register with a decrescendo and resolves in a small chord. |
| •Scene two & Synopsis: Silence. Man knows his efforts are in vain and decides to take a bolder, more aggressive move. Woman waits anxiously to know what he thinks about her proposal for the futurity.•Musical Observations: Tempo and dynamics increment. More rhythmically driven. Heavy bassline emphasizing chord tones with more minor tonality. From mezzo-forte to .forte. |
| •Scene 2 & Synopsis: The couple discusses why their human relationship failed.•Text: Woman: We can't have a conversation similar this. Homo: Y'all said information technology a long fourth dimension ago. Since day i our love was like a statue made out of drinking glass: translucent considering nosotros could clearly see our emotions simply never their reasons. Fragile, each of us with our mode of being…•Musical Observations: More nebulous floating quality via higher annals, dissonance, whole-tone scale patterns, parallel chords. |
| •Scene 3 & Synopsis: The couple take turns throwing call and response flirtatious poetic stanzas at each other.•Text: Adult female: … I only wanted to see you once! I say. The field will sprout anew! Y'all say. I will kill myself before I run into those green tomatoes! Man: You and your ambiguities. Here you become: B is equal to V, which is equal to Due west. They say that a B is a V, that a V is a B, that W doesn't even exist. …•Musical Observations: vi/eight fourth dimension signature introduced; triplets create rolling effect. Ostinato in right mitt, melody in left mitt dips back and forth betwixt lower and higher registers to create a call and response issue. Dissonance slowly increases. |
| •Scene 4 & Synopsis: The couple digs deeper into their clashing personality traits.•Text: Man: …So y'all can sympathise yourself better. You besides accept demons to extricate. I don't have another response. Trust me. I'm telling you lot that I'one thousand willing to change if yous're willing to take me. Woman: Is that what you say to your students? Trust me. No. Non fifty-fifty with a thousand words said with delicacy…•Musical Observations: Augmented chords are introduced, creating ambiguous major and pocket-size tonality. Semitone dissonant clusters persist with a college diminished chromatic line played above the right hand within rubato tempo, creating a jarring, anguished feel. Overall mezzo-piano. |
| •Scene 4 & Synopsis: Woman'south monologue. She dissects her role in guild, her vocation, and ultimately her role towards herself.•Text: Woman: …I've gone from bitterness to curiosity, from joy to monotony and finally… to the p-o-south-s-e-s-s-i-o-n of myself. I look at myself with open up optics and with certainty: look, this is me, here and now. And more beautiful than always. …•Musical Observations: Intimate texture created via single quarter notes, lighter touch on of the keys, higher annals, nuanced range of subtle pianissimo to mezzo-piano dynamics. |
| •Scene 5 & Synopsis: The couple knows and accepts there is no remedy for the cease that already arrived between them.•Text: Man: Y'all demand too much. Adult female: So now I'm the ane demanding besides much! … Yous asked me for a final story and I'm giving y'all what I've learned afterwards all this time.•Musical Observations: Pianist picks up Ástor Piazzolla's limerick Adiós Nonino every bit the underlying melodic structure with an increasingly heavy affect, louder dynamics, and sweeping arpeggios before recoiling back. |
| •Scene six & Synopsis: The man has left and the woman remains crying, alone in the cabaret. A stark dissimilarity to her final epilogue.•Musical Observations: Unmarried notes turn into heavy accented chords, lower notes, a descending bass line, all with a progressive crescendo and inserts of sweeping arpeggios before decrescendo to cease on a minor chord. |
4.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
These pic and theatre projects are interesting and crucially relevant to today because of the merge of the underlying elements within and between multimedia works, and the consequences for the report of artistic inventiveness. The get-go element to consider is the visual stimulus. Within a visual image there are several variables among which narrative, scene elements like lighting and lens focusing, and physiological changes expressed past the actors all interact to represent an emotion and arm-twist a mood. In a case where language is involved, words add another layer of emotional and contextual meaning. Although in the context of distinguishing between perceived and represented reality through various artistic mediums, art historian Ernst Gombrich makes the point of comparing various photographs and paintings of the same image but with unlike lighting exposure levels to (a) explore our responses to such variances,89 and (b) highlight the importance of scenographic information on our overall emotional and conceptual understanding of a visual narrative. For case, an image of a mural printed with a narrower range of grays than one containing a wider range and stronger contrasts looks drastically different: rainy and foggy vs. bright and sunny. Aside from exposure levels within black and white, color too has been shown cross-culturally to accept specific affective associations.90 With respect to the present study, there are several elements to indicate out: (i) In Moments, which was shot in black and white Hard disk drive video, except for the fright and happiness chapters that took reward of chiaroscuro and high contrast sunny lighting to enhance the level of suspense and pleasantness within each scene, respectively, all other chapters did non accept whatever special lighting effects and were shot either nether natural or natural light-resembling studio lighting conditions within a medium range of grays. (two) In Última Partida, colored lighting was used to denote identify and time. Scenes one and 2 took identify in the present moment in a cabaret with red hues, scene 3 took place at an undefined fourth dimension either outdoors or in a dream with white light, scenes iv and five begun in the present and moved into an evening in the past and back to the present with ruby, purple, blue, and crimson hues, respectively, and scene six took place in the present moment in the cabaret with red hues. Again, these projects were prepared with the intention of utilizing primarily physiological and linguistic cues as the sources for musical interpretation, simply non ignoring lighting entirely to maintain contextual and narrative realism.
The 2nd element is the audial stimulus. The apply of improvised music, allow alone pre-scored music, at least for film, is not novel. The history of music in and for film is almost as long as film history itself. From masking the noise of the projector to serving equally a tool for enhancing the emotional and narrative meaning of scenes, piano, organ, instrumental, and orchestral music both improvised and taken from classical repertoire were indispensable for silent films since 1895 upward into the 1930s. By 1932 volumes of music books were published with musical suggestions for item scenes known as "cue sheets."80, 91 The 1940s to 1960s were a golden age for original scored orchestral music, Bernard Herrmann (e.thou. 1958: Vertigo) and Ennio Morricone (e.g. 1966: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly) every bit notable examples. It was in the 1950s and across, still, when new film techniques and styles inverse dramatically that all types of jazz like hard bop, gratuitous, modal, and Afro-Cuban took off in experimental and improvisatory directions landing such celebrated collaborations as those between Shafi Hadi in John Cassavete's Shadows (1959), Martial Solal and Jean-Luc Godard in Breathless ("À tour de souffle," 1960), Freddie Redd'south Quartet with Jackie McLean in Shirley Clarke's 1961 The Connectedness, Michelangelo Antonioni's 1966 Blow-Up with Herbie Hancock, and the more traditional orchestral moving-picture show-scoring style by Lalo Schifrin that innovatively infused a wealth of jazz rhythms for Peter Yates' action thriller Bullitt (1968), to name only a few. I mention these titles non only to offering past revolutionary examples within both cinematic and musical worlds, but, in conjunction with the novel work and analyses presented hither, to bring to the forefront the empirical value of improvisatory music in response to visual information as a means of agreement how visual, music, linguistic communication, and emotion perception all interact during the creation of an ephemeral and powerful aesthetic moment. Similar in Moments and Última Partida, these musical scores have on the primary part of creating thematic congruence between sound and image (as in an ascending motion in tandem with an ascending melodic sequence80). The result is a focused, enhanced, and elicited set of emotions and detail key narrative details as determined past the improviser (if not the director) via the combination of specific musical elements. Moreover, given the real-time nature of the entire process, the improviser (several or soloist) is presumably in a abiding feedback loop betwixt new ideas emerging every bit a result of unraveling narratives on screen, on stage, and/or instrumentally, and selected ideas already in the midst of evolution without the opportunity to rewind into the past and revise the limerick. Combining visual stimuli and audial information in existent-time thus reveals a fascinating however complex map of cognitive processing to slice apart. I suggest, therefore, in Figure 1 a full general cognitive feedback model of spontaneous creative emotional innovation that integrates the ever-changing music, spoken language, and emotional expression inevitable within live music scoring in flick and theatre. Although not addressed here, but unsaid in the model and a question for further investigation, the actors on stage are hypothetically affected not just past their textual interpretation, just the emerging music as well.
Figure 1.
Cerebral model of live spontaneous artistic musical composition and perception during pic and theatre performances.
Moments and Última Partida, different past and present film and theatrical music, remain every bit unique creative objects in constant fluctuation: their musical soundtracks change with every live presentation; and every composition is one more datum to the combinatorial options available for scenic translation into musical language. The ecological realism of the paradigm, moreover, allows for a richness of musical interpretations. Every bit a event, this cognitive model offers a glimpse into the spontaneous improvisatory mind in action, and encourages the creation of contemporary multimedia works that both challenge the audiovisual experience and help us solve this complex problem-solving process that is creativity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Irene González, PhD, Executive Manager and Producer of La Petite Noiseuse Productions, for her invaluable comments and review of the manuscript, and financial back up. Ian Richter for sound recording. Joel Nygren and Christian Hizon for participating equally musical informants. All content as expressed in this article, including audio, photographs, and literary text presented, are the property of and copyrighted by La Petite Noiseuse Productions.
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